Jiaqi Li

The Chinese University of Hong Kong

One popular legend among Chinese Muslims describes a Tang Dynasty emperor who dreamt of a man in a turban helping him ward off evil spirits. This figure is often identified as the Prophet Mohammed, who sent his trusted companion, Saʿd ibn Abī Waqqās, known as a “great monk,” to China. This event is believed to have brought Islam to China, with Waqqās’s tomb in Guangzhou becoming a significant site for tourism and pilgrimage for Muslims around the world. While historian Donald Leslie (1989) argues that there is no credible evidence outside Chinese sources to support Waqqās’s visit to China, this has not slowed down pilgrimages both throughout China and from abroad to his tomb in Guangzhou.

Like these devout pilgrims, I arrived in Guangzhou on Thursday, August 8, 2024. As a non-Muslim ethnomusicologist, I was not driven to visit this site by religious faith, but by the desire to listen for how Chinese Muslims organize their auditory environment within the framework of modernity as a means of rendering a diverse Islamic soundscape. My research suggests that this rich sonic environment results from the mutual influence and adaptation of various cultures coexisting within the metropolis. As people settle in new places, such as Guangzhou, they often embrace local traditions while incorporating elements from their own cultural backgrounds (Kielman 2022). To fulfill this purpose, I chose to stay near the Xianxian Mosque, located close to Guangzhou railway station. I arranged a meeting with Imam Wang Wenjie, the Chief Imam of Guangdong Province, and arrived fifteen minutes early. Before the meeting, I took the opportunity to visit Waqqās’s tomb located at the mosque’s center. Surrounded by other graves, the tomb was marked by a distinctive stone cottage with a steady trail of incense smoke rising from its roof and clearly visible from a distance. As I approached, the rich scent of incense and the rhythmic sound of Qur’anic recitation enveloped me. The recitation, melodious yet distinct from the traditional Maqam style, carried the subtle musicality of Northwestern Chinese banquet tunes—a pentatonic-based singing form in the Gansu-Qinghai dialect—evoking a fusion of religious and local soundscapes. This unusual blend of melodies suggested that the reciters were likely Sufis from Northwestern China. Inside the cottage, the reverberating recitations filled the domed space, enhancing the acoustic texture and evoking a profound sense of reverence and reflection. 

Xianxian, meaning “previous sages,” reflects both the mosque’s location in a Muslim cemetery and the long history of Islam in Guangzhou. The gray brick walls seem to separate two worlds. Outside, near the Guangzhou Railway Station and the Xiaobei commercial district, bustling traffic, vendors’ calls, and blaring horns fill the streets. But once inside the mosque’s Sino-Arabic gate, those sounds vanish. Trees, pavilions, and the ancient stone archway create a tranquil sanctuary, especially outside prayer times. The rustling of leaves and faint, elongated Qur’anic recitation—though hard to hear clearly—imbue the courtyard with a sense of sacredness. Time seems to stop, drawing visitors into a timeless reverie.

Guangzhou, one of China’s earliest cities to open up to international trade and investment, has long been a key port on the Maritime Silk Road. Since the Tang Dynasty, and especially during the Song Dynasty (960-1279), it has served as a major trading hub, attracting Arab and Persian merchants. The diverse sounds and auditory influences of Islam in China likely began to take shape during this period. 

At time of writing, modern Guangzhou seems to be reliving its historical glory in a unique way. On one side, the high-end business district, with its towering skyscrapers like the Guangzhou Tower, East Tower, and West Tower, underscores Guangzhou’s status as a leading global manufacturing hub. On the other, the residences constructed in the early twentieth century along the riverfront exude a leisurely charm, evoking dreams of Guangzhou’s prosperous past. Meanwhile, the area around Xiaobei, as described by Gordon Mathews (2017), is a center of “low-end globalization,” trading in counterfeit products and low-end goods.

Guangzhou’s vibrant life overwhelms the senses in many ways. Arab cuisine, Lanzhou hand-pulled noodles, and traditional Cantonese dim sum delight the palate. The dazzling neon lights at night, the rich cultural relics of the Nanyue King’s Tomb, and the fusion architecture on Shamian Island captivate the eyes, revealing the flourishing of Islamic culture here. The Islamic Association in Guangzhou caters to worshippers from around the world, providing a rich auditory experience. At the recommendation of the Hong Kong Chinese Islamic Federation, my auditory journey began when I met Imam Wang. After about an hour of conversation, he took me to the so-called “Arab alley,” where we had a Syrian buffet. Imam Wang took pride in the fact that this area still houses many devout Muslims from around the world. At the same time, it did not seem unusual that the majority of the patrons in this Arab-owned and -styled restaurant were Chinese. After dinner, Imam Wang and I agreed to meet again the next day, which would be Friday, the day of Jum’ah, the Muslim congregational prayer.

On Friday, around 1:30 p.m., I entered the spacious main hall of the Chinese-style mosque. The unhurried adhan (call to prayer) echoed through the microphone, inviting worshippers to prayer. It began with a rich, resonant tone, the chanter’s voice rising and falling in smooth, undulating waves. The timbre, both bright and melancholic, immediately caused the participants to stand solemnly, evoking a sense of sanctity with a slight nasality that pierced through the city’s ambient noise. As the melody echoed through the open courtyard, the reverberation gave the call an ethereal, almost otherworldly quality, creating a sacred atmosphere that captivated everyone within earshot. Soon, the two-story hall and the spacious courtyard filled with worshippers—noticeably African, Arab, and Chinese Muslims from various regions. The mosque’s adhan might have been distinct to accommodate the diverse aesthetic preferences of the worshippers gathered for prayer, allowing everyone to find familiar auditory elements within the ambiguous melody.

At the front of the hall, a young man in a white robe began delivering a Wa’z (sermon) in Mandarin Chinese, followed by his recitation of the Khutbah (Friday sermon) in standard Arabic. A brief and rhythmical adhan signaled the start of the congregational prayer, and the attendees rose to their feet, standing shoulder-to-shoulder in rows.

Imam Wang led the prayer, beginning with the recitation of the Fatihah and Yasin chapters from the Qur’an in the Maqam style, characterized by its melodic structure and ornamentation. His recitation consisted of a soft and flowing melody with carefully placed pauses and vocal embellishments to enhance the spiritual experience. Despite the intense Guangzhou summer heat, and with sweat constantly rolling down their faces, the worshippers followed his captivating recitation, creating an atmosphere of deep devotion and reverence. After the prayers, he continued his duties which, on that day, included presiding over a wedding ceremony.

The Imam invited me to the reception room, where, besides him and me, the room was filled with Pakistani, Bangladeshi, and Indian students studying at universities in Guangzhou. They were there to witness the marriage of their Bangladeshi Muslim friends. Following Muslim tradition, Imam Wang recited the Nikah, the Arabic term for the marriage contract, a brief but indispensable part of the wedding ceremony. He sat solemnly at the center of the room, and a lively, joyful recitation with a distinctive nasal singing style and pentatonicism filled the air. The rhythm was lively and sharply defined—many might associate the melody with Peking opera if heard out of context. However, unlike Peking opera, the rhythm in this recitation was restructured to accommodate the long and short syllables of Arabic. This style of recitation, popular in northern China, reflects how Chinese Muslims, rather than prohibiting music, boldly incorporate beloved regional musical elements into ancient religious recitations. Imam Wang learned this style in his hometown of Cangzhou and brought it with him to Guangzhou.

As the ceremony concluded, the room erupted in joyous laughter. Friends and family exchanged light-hearted jokes, snapped photos, and showered the newlyweds with congratulations, while Imam Wang offered his heartfelt blessings. The Peking operatic singing voice with pentatonic scales that had been subtly woven into the ceremony seemed to resonate with everyone, even the foreign students, who appeared unfazed by this blending of musical traditions. The atmosphere was one of celebration and inclusivity, where the melody symbolized the openness of Guangzhou.

Audio 1. Imam Wang hosting a wedding Ceremony for a Bangladeshi couple. Audio by author.

As the ceremony concluded, the room erupted in joyous laughter. Friends and family exchanged light-hearted jokes, snapped photos, and showered the newlyweds with congratulations, while Imam Wang offered his heartfelt blessings. The Peking operatic singing voice with pentatonic scales that had been subtly woven into the ceremony seemed to resonate with everyone, even the foreign students, who appeared unfazed by this blending of musical traditions. The atmosphere was one of celebration and inclusivity, where the melody symbolized the openness of Guangzhou.

Soon after, several Imams serving in Guangzhou gathered to prepare for their next task: performing a prayer and blessing ceremony for a Dongxiang hand-pulled noodle shop owner who had just returned from the Hajj pilgrimage in Mecca. These Imams were not originally from Guangzhou—one hailed from Qinghai in Northwest China, another from Shandong in the East, and Imam Wu from Heilongjiang in the Northeast. The blessing ceremony included the collective recitation of the Qur’an, followed by a chant of praise. Imam Wu, with his resonant and pleasant voice, led the recitation. After the Qur’anic recitation concluded, the group began a praise passage infused with the traditional music of Yunnan. It featured a simpler pentatonic scale and a steady, slow 2/4 rhythmic pattern, and the lyrics expressing admiration for Allah and the Prophet. At that moment, a question came to mind: why, here in Guangzhou, do we hear melodies characteristic of Yunnan? After the ceremony, I asked the Imams in attendance about it.

According to Imam Wang, this particular praise passage was introduced by Imams from Yunnan who served in Guangzhou during the late Qing dynasty and Republican era. Regardless of their region of origin, all Imams who arrived in Guangzhou would learn this passage. The melodious tune captivated the shop’s customers, who paused to listen, while the shop owner softly joined in the chanting.

Audio 2. A collective praise in Guangzhou as a part of Islamic ritual. Recording by author.

The collective recitation also reflected the unity within the Muslim community, as the shared melody and devout hearts transcended regional boundaries, drawing everyone together in memories of the Hajj pilgrimage and in praise of the Prophet Muhammad. As the recitation ended, everyone placed their hands together in reverence before enjoying the Dongxiang-style hand-grasped lamb dishes the owner had prepared. The echo of the recitation lingered in the room, adding a sense of spiritual continuity to the gathering.
Before bidding farewell to Imam Wang, I revisited Waqqās’s tomb in the small cottage. Chanting voices rose once more; this time, several people recited together. Some incorporated quarter tones and elements of Maqam scales, while others used the Chinese pentatonic scale and recited in Arabic with distinct accents. At that moment, the different vocal styles and origins blended seamlessly, making it hard to distinguish one from the other. I imagined these sounds as the interweaving of the two cultures within this sacred space. At 5 p.m., an employee entered and announced that it was time to close. The spell of the captivating soundscape was broken, and I realized it was time to leave.

Listening to the sounds of Islam in Guangzhou is like leafing through the city’s history, reflecting its cycles of rise and decline. These voices are not as fragile or easily forgotten as one might think—certain melodies have endured for centuries through oral tradition. Guangzhou continues to renew itself, absorbing global influences while maintaining an open embrace of its own heritage.

My fieldwork has led me to believe that many traditional sounds have not disappeared in a globalized and diverse modern society. Instead, they have been carefully preserved across generations in a more adaptable and inclusive way. At the same time, modern life, like in Guangzhou, has made people’s auditory experience more open and diverse. Moreover, it no longer mattered whether Waqqās actually visited China; his tomb, whether authentic or not, has become a landmark for the exchange and integration of Islamic culture between China and other countries.

Video 1. Sound of recitations inside the tomb. Video by author.

References

Leslie, Donald Daniel. 1989. “The Sahaba Sa d ibn abi Waqqas in China.” In The Legacy of Islam in China: An International Symposium in Memory of Joseph F. Fletcher, Harvard University, 14-16 April 1989, 69–78.. Cambridge, MA: The Center.

Mathews, Gordon, Linessa Dan Lin, and Yang Yang. 2017. The World in Guangzhou: Africans and Other Foreigners in South China’s Global Marketplace. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Kielman, Adam. 2022. Sonic Mobilities: Producing Worlds in Southern China. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.